|
|
|
|
|
|
Prepaid gas meter 
History, design and properties
The concept of reducing the brass instrument size without reducing the resonating tube length can be seen in several 19th century models of cornet. Pocket cornets have been constructed since the 1860s, supposedly used in marching bands.
The variation in design among pocket trumpets makes tonal characteristics and playability extremely variable from model to model. Yet there are two basic design approaches to pocket trumpets:
Reduced bell and bore size design
Standard bell and bore size design
The models with reduced bell and bore size design originate in 19th century pocket cornet design and regularly suffer from poor intonation and severely hindered dynamic and timbral range. As the bell is not the standard sized, no standard mute can be applied.
The models with standard bell and bore size design originally appeared in the USA in the early 1970s, mostly following the ingenious design of master trumpet builder Louis Duda. The intonation is radically improved and the dynamic range is of a standard trumpet, although the tonal quality, projection and articulation are different. Apart from often being used for practicing purposes, pocket trumpets are mostly played as auxiliary instruments by soloists in jazz and dixieland bands as well as for some specific studio recording demands. Perhaps the best-known work with the pocket trumpet is Don Cherry's playing on Ornette Coleman's groundbreaking 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation.
Standard features
Bell Diameter: 4.75 inches
Bore: Medium-Large Bore .460"
Height: 6.5 inche , oil gauges .
Length: 9.5 inche , tractor wheel weights .
Common Manufacturers and Model , infared thermometer .
Ranked by Cost, Lowest to Highest
Amati ATR 314 B (Czech Republic)
stagg 77-MT B (flemmish manufacture sold to the world)
Jupiter 416 B (Taiwan)
Holton T650 B (United States)
Benge Colibri B (United States)
Kanstul CCT-905 B (United States)
Marcinkiewicz Vermeer B (United States)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Trumpet
a virtual museum of vintage pocket cornets and trumpets
ITG The International Trumpet Guild is an association dedicated to increasing communications between trumpet players worldwide.
Trumpet Master Trumpet Players Resource
Trumpet Player Online The internet trumpet resource
Trumpet Geeks International A resource for trumpet players
Dallas Music a non-profit musical instrument resource site
Categories: Brass instrumentsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | All articles lacking sources
|
Transcranial Doppler (Tcd) 
See also
Baroque trumpet
Bugle
External link , gas flowmeter .
Photos, discussion, and sound samples of a natural trumpet from 1760 (from the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments , baby weighing scales .
Reference , pressure gauge diaphragm .
^ Apel, p. 874.
Sources
Apel, Willi, ed. (1969). Harvard Dictionary of Music (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. SBN 674375017
Categories: Brass instruments | Natural horns
|
|
|
|
Acrylic Paper Weight With Coin Inside 
History
Moche Trumpet. 300 AD Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru.
Main article: History of primitive and non-Western trumpets
The earliest trumpets date back to 1500 BC and earlier. The bronze and silver trumpets from Tutankhamun's grave in Egypt, bronze lurs from Scandinavia, and metal trumpets from China date back to this period. Trumpets from the Oxus civilization (3rd millennium BC) of Central Asia have decorated swellings in the middle, yet are made out of one sheet of metal, which is considered a technical wonder. The Moche people of ancient Peru depicted trumpets in their art going back to 300 AD The earliest trumpets were signaling instruments used for military or religious purposes, rather than music in the modern sense; and the modern bugle continues this signaling tradition.
Reproduction Baroque trumpet by Michael Lair , gas flow meters .
In medieval times, trumpet playing was a guarded craft, its instruction occurring only within highly selective guilds. The trumpet players were often among the most heavily guarded members of a troop, as they were relied upon to relay instructions to other sections of the army , shunt resistor .
Improvements to instrument design and metal making in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance led to an increased usefulness of the trumpet as a musical instrument. The natural trumpets of this era consisted of a single coiled tube, without valves. This only allowed for one overtone series at a time to be played. Changing keys required the player to swap out the crooks of the instrument. The development of the upper, "clarino" register by specialist trumpetersotably Cesare Bendinelliould lend itself well to the Baroque era, also known as the "Golden Age of the natural trumpet." During this period, a vast body of music was written for virtuoso trumpeters. The art was revived in the mid-20th century and natural trumpet playing is again a thriving art in Europe. The popularity of natural trumpets in the United States has waned considerably from its heyday in the 1960s and 1970s , automatic meter reading .
The melody-dominated homophony of the classical and romantic periods relegated the trumpet to a secondary role by most major composers owing to the limitations of the natural trumpet. Berlioz wrote in 1844:
"Notwithstanding the real loftiness and distinguished nature of its quality of tone, there are few instruments that have been more degraded (than the trumpet). Down to Beethoven and Weber, every composer - not excepting Mozart - persisted in confining it to the unworthy function of filling up, or in causing it to sound two or three commonplace rhythmical formulae."
The attempt to give the trumpet more chromatic freedom in its range saw the development of the keyed trumpet, but this was a largely unsuccessful venture due to the poor quality of its sound.
The trumpet was slow to adopt the modern valves (invented around the mid 1830s), and its cousin the cornet would take the spotlight as solo instrument for the next hundred years. The symphonies of Mozart and Beethoven, even Brahms, were still played on natural trumpets. Crooks and shanks (removable tubing of various lengths) as opposed to keys or valves were standard, notably in France, into the first part of the 20th century. As a consequence of this late development of the instrument's chromatic ability, the repertoire for the instrument is relatively small compared to other instruments. The 20th century saw an explosion in the amount and variety of music written for the trumpet.
Construction
Trumpet valve bypass (depressed)
The trumpet is constructed of brass tubing bent twice into an oblong shape. The trumpet and trombone share a roughly cylindrical bore which results in a bright, loud sound. The bore is actually a complex series of tapers, smaller at the mouthpiece receiver and larger just before the flare of the bell begins; careful design of these tapers is critical to the intonation of the instrument. By comparison, the cornet and flugelhorn have conical bores and produce a more mellow tone.
As with all brass instruments, sound is produced by blowing air through closed lips, producing a "buzzing" sound into the mouthpiece and starting a standing wave vibration in the air column inside the trumpet. The player can select the pitch from a range of overtones or harmonics by changing the lip aperture and tension (known as the embouchure). Modern trumpets also have three piston valves, each of which increases the length of tubing when engaged, thereby lowering the pitch. The first valve lowers the instrument's pitch by a whole step (2 semitones), the second valve by a half step (1 semitone), and the third valve by one-and-a-half steps (3 semitones). When a fourth valve is present, as with some piccolo trumpets, it lowers the pitch a perfect fourth (5 semitones). Used singly and in combination these valves make the instrument fully chromatic, i.e., able to play all twelve pitches of Western music. The sound is projected outward via the bell.
The trumpet's harmonic series is closely matched to the musical scale, but there are some notes in the series which are a compromise and thus slightly off key; these are known as wolf tones. Some trumpets have a slide mechanism built in to compensate.
The mouthpiece has a circular rim which provides a comfortable environment for the lips' vibration. Directly behind the rim is the cup, which channels the air into a much smaller opening (the back bore or shank) which tapers out slightly to match the diameter of the trumpet's lead pipe. The dimensions of these parts of the mouthpiece affect the timbre or quality of sound, the ease of playability, and player comfort. Generally, the wider and deeper the cup, the darker the sound and timbre.
Types of trumpets
The most common type is the B trumpet, but low F, C, D, E, E, F, G and A trumpets are also available. The most common use of the C trumpet is in American orchestral playing, where it is used alongside the B trumpet. Its slightly smaller size gives it a brighter, more lively sound. Because music written for early trumpets required the use of a different trumpet for each key they did not have valves and therefore were not chromatic and also because a player may choose to play a particular passage on a different trumpet from the one indicated on the written music, orchestra trumpet players are generally adept at transposing music at sight, sometimes playing music written for the B trumpet on the C trumpet, and vice versa.
Piccolo trumpet in B, with swappable leadpipes to tune the instrument to B (shorter) or A (longer)
The standard trumpet range extends from the written F immediately below Middle C up to about three octaves higher. Traditional trumpet repertoire rarely calls for notes beyond this range, and the fingering tables of most method books peak at the C (high C) two octaves above middle C. Several trumpeters have achieved fame for their proficiency in the extreme high register, among them Lew Soloff, Andrea Tofanelli, Bill Chase, Maynard Ferguson, Roger Ingram, Wayne Bergeron, Anthony Gorruso, Dizzy Gillespie, Jon Faddis, Cat Anderson, James Morrison, Doc Severinsen and Arturo Sandoval. It is also possible to produce pedal tones below the low F, which is a device commonly employed in contemporary repertoire for the instrument.
The smallest trumpets are referred to as piccolo trumpets. The most common of these are built to play in both B and A, with separate leadpipes for each key. The tubing in the B piccolo trumpet is one-half the length of that in a standard B trumpet. Piccolo trumpets in G, F and even C are also manufactured, but are rarer. Many players use a smaller mouthpiece on the piccolo trumpet, which requires a different sound production technique from the B trumpet and can limit endurance. Almost all piccolo trumpets have four valves instead of the usual three the fourth valve lowers the pitch, usually by a fourth, to facilitate the playing of lower notes. Maurice Andr, Hkan Hardenberger, and Wynton Marsalis are some well-known piccolo trumpet players.
trumpet in C with rotary valves
Trumpets pitched in the key of low G are also called sopranos, or soprano bugles, after their adaptation from military bugles. Traditionally used in drum and bugle corps, sopranos have featured both rotary valves and piston valves.
The bass trumpet is usually played by a trombone player, being at the same pitch. Bass trumpet is played with a trombone or euphonium mouthpiece, and music for it is written in treble clef.
The modern slide trumpet is a B trumpet that has a slide instead of valves. It is similar to a soprano trombone. The first slide trumpets emerged during the Renaissance, predating the modern trombone, and are the first attempts to increase chromaticism on the instrument. Slide trumpets were the first trumpets allowed in the Christian church.
The historical slide trumpet was probably first developed in the late fourteenth century for use in alta capella wind bands. Deriving from early straight trumpets, the Renaissance slide trumpet was essentially a natural trumpet with a sliding leadpipe. This single slide was rather awkward, as the entire corpus of the instrument moved, and the range of the slide was probably no more than a major third. Originals were probably pitched in D, to fit with shawms in D and G, probably at a typical pitch standard near A=466Hz. As no instruments from this period are known to survive, the details - and even the existence - of a Renaissance slide trumpet is a matter of some conjecture, and there continues to be some debate among scholars.
Some slide trumpet...
|
|
|
|
High Grade LDPE High Grade LDPE Film 100 95 90. 
Plucked strings
Lutes
Important luthiers who specialized in the instruments of the lute family (lutes, archlutes, theorbos, vihuelas etc.):
Tieffenbrucker family
Sellas famil , welder plastic .
Martin Hoffman , plastic filler .
Joachim Tielk , rain plastic .
Leopold Widhalm,
Sixtus Rauwolf
Michele Harton
Giovanni Tessler
Sebastian Schelle
Vendelio Venere
The varnishing of a violin
and in our time:
Andrew Rutherford
Richard Berg
Cezar Mateus
Stephen Gottlieb
Grant Tomlinson
Ray Nurse inter alia
Guitars
Further information: Classical guitar making and List of guitar manufacturers
Two important early luthiers in the guitar category are Antonio Torres Jurado of Spain, who is credited with developing the form of classical guitar that is still in use today, and Christian Frederick Martin of Germany who developed a form which later evolved into the steel-string acoustic guitar.
Orville Gibson was an American luthier who specialized in mandolins, and is credited with creating the archtop guitar.
John D'Angelico and Jimmy D'Aquisto were two important 20th century luthiers who worked with archtop guitars.
Lloyd Loar, worked briefly for the Gibson Guitar Corporation making mandolins and guitars. His designs for a family of archtop instruments (mandolin, mandola, guitar, et cetera) are held in high esteem by today's luthiers, who seek to reproduce their sound.
Paul Bigsby's innovation of the tremolo arm for archtop and electric guitars is still in use today and may have influenced Leo Fender's design for the Stratocaster solid body electric guitar, as well as the Jaguar and Jazzmaster.
Concurrent with Fender's work, guitarist Les Paul independently developed a solid body electric guitar. However both Fender and Paul were preceded by Adolph Rickenbacher's Bakelite "frying pan" solid body electric guitar developed with and patented by George Beauchamp.
A company founded by luthier Friedrich Gretsch and continued by his son and grandson, Fred and Fred Jr., originally made banjos, but is more famous today for its electric guitars.
Bowed strings
Further information: Violin construction and mechanics
To put the bowed stringed luthiers into some sort of manageable order, it is prudent to begin with the purported "inventor" of the violin, Andrea Amati. Amati was originally a lute maker but turned to the new instrument form of violin in the mid 16th century. He was the progenitor of the famous Amati family of luthiers active in Cremona, Italy until the 18th century. Andrea Amati's son, Nicol, was himself an important master luthier who had several apprentices of note including Andrea Guarneri, Francesco Ruggieri, Antonio Stradivari, Giovanni Battista Rogeri, Matthias Klotz and possibly Jacob Stainer.
Two other important early luthiers of the violin family were Gasparo da Sal of Brescia, Italy and Gasparo Duiffopruggar of Austria who were each originally credited with invention of the first violin. However, this attribute has since been removed but is still often incorrectly cited. da Sal had at least one important apprenticeiovanni Paolo Maggini who inherited da Sal's business in Brescia upon da Sal's death. Valentino Siani worked with Giovanni Paolo Maggini. In 1620 he moved to Florence.
Of those luthiers born in the mid 17th century, there are Giovanni Grancino, Carlo Giuseppe Testore and son Carlo Antonio Testore, all from Milan. From Venice the luthiers Matteo Goffriller, Domenico Montagnana, Sanctus Seraphin and Carlo Annibale Tononi were principals in the Venetian school of violin making (although the latter began his career in Bologna). The Bergonzi family of luthiers were the successors to the Amati family in Cremona. David Tecchler who was born in Austria later worked in both Venice and Rome.
Important luthiers from the early 18th century include Nicol Gagliano of Naples, Italy, Carlo Ferdinando Landolfi of Milan and Giovanni Battista Guadagnini who roamed throughout Italy during his lifetime. From Austria originally, Leopold Widhalm later established himself in Nrnberg, Germany.
The early 19th century luthiers of the Mirecourt school of violin making in France were the Vuillaume family, Charles Jean Baptiste Collin-Mezin, and Collin-Mezin's son, Charles Collin-Mezin, Jr..
Jrme-Thibouville-Lamy was the most important musical instrument maker in France. The firm started making wind instruments around 1730 at La Couture-Boussey then moved to Mirecourt around 1760 and started making violins, guitars, mandolins and musical accessories. It was very successful, and opened offices in Paris, then in London. It made thousands of quality instruments that were exported throughout the world.
Luthiers
16th19th centuries
Nicol Amati
Carlo Bergonzi (luthier)
Goffredo Cappa
Gagliano family of luthiers
Francesco Goffriller
Matteo Goffriller
Giovanni Grancino
Giovanni Battista Guadagnini
Andrea Guarneri
Guarneri
Giuseppe Guarneri
Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Guarneri
Pietro Guarneri
Pietro Giovanni Guarneri
Carlo Ferdinando Landolfi
Nicolas Lupot
Johann Kulik
Giovanni Paolo Maggini
Vincenzo Panormo
Giovanni Francesco Pressenda
Giuseppe Rocca
Giovanni Battista Rogeri
Francesco Ruggieri
Gasparo da Sal
Antonio Stradivari
Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume
20th century
Gaetano Antoniazzi
Riccardo Antoniazzi
Paolo de Barbieri
Otello Bignami
Leandro Bisiach
Carlo Bisiach
Terry Borman
David Burgess
Antonio de Torres
Annibale Fagnola
Giuseppe Fiorini
Raffaele Fiorini
Ferdinando Garimberti
Johann Goldfu
Hermann Hauser Sr.
Heinrich Th Heberlein Jr.
Giuseppe Bernardo Lecchi
Giuseppe Lepri
Giuseppe Ornati
Ansaldo Poggi
Giuseppe Pedrazzini
Sergio Peresson
Sesto Rocchi
Ernst Heinrich Roth
Igino Sderci
Gaetano Sgarabotto
Pietro Sgarabotto
Stefano Scarampella
Contemporary
Scott Cao
Francesco Bissolotti
David Burgess
Dean Zelinsky
Douglas Cox
Vasile Gliga
Horst Goldfu
Stefan-Peter Greiner
Richard Alexander
Alois Honek
Jonathan Beecher
Roberto Regazzi
Sergio Peresson
Harry Dean
Robert Nelson
Terry Borman
Jim Fleeting
Faruk Trnz
Samuel Zygmuntowicz
Experimental luthiers
Ivor Darreg
Yuri Landman
Harry Partch
Bradford Reed
Hans Reichel
Iner Souster
See also
Archetier
Vintage guitar
References
^ Open Directory Project. "Arts, Music, Instruments, Stringed". http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Instruments/Stringed/. Retrieved on 2006-11-03.
^ Curtis, Claire. "Welcome to Curtis Violins". http://www.curtisviolins.com/. Retrieved on 2006-11-05.
^ GuitarAttack.com. "What is a luthier?". http://www.guitarattack.com/luthier.htm. Retrieved on 2006-11-03.
^ ViolinMakers.biz. "Violin Makers Listing". http://www.violinmakers.biz/. Retrieved on 2006-11-03.
^ Gruhn, George. "Rickenbacker Electro Spanish Guitar". http://www.gruhn.com/articles/rickelectro.html. Retrieved on 2006-11-04.
^ Bartruff, William. "The History of the Violin". http://www.bartruff.com/history/. Retrieved on 2006-11-03.
Other sources
Historical Lute Construction by Robert Lundberg, Guild of American Luthiers (2002) ISBN 0962644749
The Complete Luthier's Library. A Useful International Critical Bibliography for the Maker and the Connoisseur of Stringed and Plucked Instruments. Bologna, Florenus Edizioni 1990. ISBN 88-85250-01-7
The "Secrets" of Stradivari by Simone Fernando Sacconi
The art of violinmaking by Chris Johnson and Roy Courtnall
25 masterpieces by Guarneri del Ges Peter Biddulph
Guitarmaking: Tradition and Technology by Cumpiano and Natelson
Build your own Acoustic Guitar by Jonathan Kinkead
Steel String Guitar Construction by Irving Sloan
Classic Guitar Construction by Irving Sloane
Making an Archtop Guitar by Bob Benedetto
Big Red Books of American Lutherie by the Guild of American Luthiers
Lutherie Tools edited by Cindy Burton and Tim Olsen
Making Master Guitars by Roy Courtnall
Classic Guitar Making by Arthur E. Overholtzer (Out of Print)
Clapton's Guitar by Allen St. John
Make your own electric guitar by Melvyn Hiscock
The Fretboard Journal (quarterly magazine)
The Secrets of Stradivari by S. Sacconi
The Art of Violin Making by Roy Courtnall (Preface by Lord Yehudi Menuhin)
A Comparison of Wood Density between Classical Cremonese and Modern Violins by Behrend Stoel & Terry Borman, The Public Library of Science, PLoSOne, July 2, 2008
External links
Guild of American Luthiers
Guild of British Luthiers a fledgling resource for British Luthiers.
Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website
Smithsonian Institution Violins
Mirecourt Luthiers
ALL** Guitar Foundation of America a worldwide directory of guitar luthiers.
The history of the violin a short summary including answers to "why do old instruments sound so good..."
Luthier Brasil a Brazilian resource for guitar building, by Luthier Celso Freire.
Luthiers Forum a resource for guitar building.
Guitar Museum Classical Guitar Museum,(UK)
Guild of Argentine...
|
|
|
|
Polypropylene Granules 
History
The Chernihiv musical instruments factory was opened in 1933. Initially it made pianos, balalaikas, mandolins, guitars and domras. There is evidence that 5 banduras were made there before the war by Mykhailo Yerchenko in the late 1930s. These instruments were probably diatonic Kharkiv style banduras. In time more instruments were made at the factory by Mykola Martynchuk.
In 1950 the factory began to manufacture banduras, initially using the construction plans of Chernihiv bandura maker - Olexander Kornievsky. This series of instruments were made until 1954 by maker Ivan Hladlin. Hladlin worked with makers Oleksander Shulaikovsky, Mykola Martynchuk and Oleksiy Kilochytsky.
In 1954 the factory began to making banduras designed by Ivan Skliar.
Chernihiv made Kornievsky style bandura. made by Ivan Hladlin
The Skliar bandura design was agreed upon in 1952. In 1953 the factory began to manufacture 100 banduras a month. This serially made instrument had no mechanism and the form was based on a design drawn out by Opanas Slastion.
Up until that time a special workshop for the manufacture of banduras existed in Kyiv. This workshop was initially set up by Hryhory Paliyivetz and after his arrest directed by Tuzychenko. After the war it was directed by Ivan Skliar and primarily made instruments for the Kyiv Bandurist Capella and associated bandurist ensembles. Because the makers were experienced bandura makers and the conditions in Chernihiv at the factory were much better for the drying, storage of materials it was decided that all of these craftsmen would move to Chernihiv. A special workshop was established at the factory for these craftsmen. In 1955 the first concert banduras with mechanism were made. Initially some 10 concert banduras were made a year, and special written permission was required from the Ministry of Culture in order to obtain such a bandura.
Although Skliar made the greatest contribution to developing the Kyiv style bandura made at the Chernihiv factory instrument, other craftsmen left their impact as well.. The method of placing a colored decoration raound the side of the bandura was developed by Oleksy Kilotsky. The unique one sided head was suggested in the early 1960s by bandurist Andry Omelchenko. The Taras Shevchenko bas-relief was designed by D. Vasiliev.
Ivan Kezla - bandura maker at the special workshop for concert banduras
In order to gain access to hard currency funds the factory began to manufacture instruments for export. In the late 1960s the first orders for banduras arrived from North America. This became a very positive factor in the development of the bandura.
Women french polishing factory made prima banduras 1968
The Kyiv experimental workshop which moved to Chernihiv also made orchestral banduras. They also made chromatic tsymbaly also designed by Ivan Skliar with the help of Oleksander Nezovybat'ko. The craftsmen in the workshop making the concert instruments were allowed to sign their names to the instruments. They were Oleksander Shulkovsky, Oleksy KIlotsky, Mykola Yeshchenko, Sofia Zolotar. The head of the experimental workshop was Oleksander Shlionchyk , pet preform .
In 1967 the factory began work on manufacturing Skliar's latest creation - the Kyiv-Kharkiv bandura. All together they made 8 instruments without mechanism. Unfortunately due to the untimely death of Ivan Skliar in 1970, the manufacturing process for the instrument was not perfected and the Kyiv-Kharkiv bandura was dropped from further production , processing pvc .
Bass Chernihiv bandur , copper pipe to pvc .
Up until 1978 the factory has made 26000 pianos, 110,000 balalaikas and guitars using over 3,4000 cubic meters of wood. The manufacturing of banduras has used 500 cubic meters of willow. Approximately 30,000 banduras had been made by 1991.
The use of willow in bandura backs and bodies has cause great problems for the factory as this is not a commercial wood. Keeping in mind that it takes a willow 20-30 years to grow to the size that it can be used, a substitute had to be found. In the 1970s the factory began making instruments whose backs were made of poplar. This however meant that the instruments did not have as nice a tone as the previously made instrument . The backs of these instruments were somewhat heavier because poplar had a tendency to easily split.
Only the concert banduras continued to use willow for instrument backs when it was available.
In time the experimental workshop manufactured 200 concert banduras a year. Each maker made 1.5-2 instruments a month. These instruments were better finished and were made of better quality material. In the 1980s there were 10-12 makers. Today there is only one master craftsmane - Petrenko.
Current situation
In the period of economic restructuring the factory has shrunk from 1600 workers to 68. It no longer manufactures musical instruments but has rearranged its affairs to manufacture coffins for an Italian firm. The production of pianos is also under question. Some authorities feel that Ukraine does not need a piano manufacturing facility. In 2008 it had become an automobile servicing centre.
The manufacturing of banduras has ground to a standstill. Apparently there are still 2 makers in Chernihiv who still make banduras in their own homes and charge $850 US (1999) per instrument.
In 2007 the price of a Kyiv concert bandura from the factory is currently $2000 US.
More disturbing is that all the banduras in the museum collection at the factory have been stolen. Some of the instruments were truly unique. Some have surfaced for sale at an asking price of $6000.
Bandura models
The following are the most common banduras made by the Chernihiv factory with their 1988 price in roubles in order to compare the instruments.
Children's bandura (48 R)
Prima Chernihiv bandura (86 R)
Concert Chernihiv bandura (220 R)
Hand made Concert Chernihiv bandura (350-420 R)
Hand made Concert Chernihiv bandura with Shevchenko Bar relief. (450-550 R)
Sources
Deko, O - Majstry charivnykh zvukiv - Muz. Ukr 1968
Deko, O - Majstry charivnykh zvukiv - Muz. Ukr 1984, - Second edition
Categories: Banduras | Kobzarstvo | Chernihiv Oblast | Ukrainian musical instrument makersHidden categories: Cleanup from February 2007 | All pages needing cleanup
|
|
|
|
Lacoste Striped Color S/S Polo Shirts For Men 
History of carbon fiber
In 1958, Dr. Roger Bacon created high-performance carbon fibers at the Union Carbide Parma Technical Center, located outside of Cleveland, Ohio. Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands of rayon until they carbonized. This process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting fibers contained only about 20% carbon and had low strength and stiffness properties. In the early 1960s, a process was developed using polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material. This had produced a carbon fiber that contained about 55% carbon and had much better properties. The polyacrylonitrile (PAN) conversion process quickly became the primary method for producing carbon fibers.
The high potential strength of carbon fiber was realized in 1963 in a process developed at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, Hampshire, England. The process was patented by the Ministry of Defense and then licensed by the NRDC to three British companies: Rolls-Royce, already making carbon fiber, Morganite and Courtaulds. They were able to establish industrial carbon fiber production facilities within a few years, and Rolls-Royce took advantage of the new material's properties to break into the American market with its RB-211 aero-engine.
Even then, though, there was public concern over the ability of British industry to make the best of this breakthrough. In 1969 a House of Commons select committee inquiry into carbon fiber prophetically asked: "How then is the nation to reap the maximum benefit without it becoming yet another British invention to be exploited more successfully overseas?" Ultimately, this concern was justified. One by one the licensees pulled out of carbon-fiber manufacture. Rolls-Royce's interest was in state-of-the-art aero-engine applications. Its own production process was to enable it to be leader in the use of carbon-fibre reinforced plastics. In-house production would typically cease once reliable commercial sources became available.
Unfortunately, Rolls-Royce pushed the state-of-the-art too far, too quickly, in using carbon fibre in the engine's compressor blades, which proved vulnerable to damage from bird impact. What seemed a great British technological triumph in 1968 quickly became a disaster as Roll-Royce's ambitious schedule for the RB-211 was endangered. Indeed, Rolls-Royce's problems became so great that the company was eventually nationalized by Edward Heath's Conservative government in 1971 and the carbon-fibre production plant sold off to form Bristol Composites , helmets carbon fiber .
Given the limited market for a very expensive product of variable quality, Morganite also decided that carbon-fibre production was peripheral to its core business, leaving Courtaulds as the only big UK manufacturer , ducati carbon fiber .
The company continued making carbon fiber, developing two main markets: aerospace and sports equipment. The speed of production and the quality of the product were improved , polyester fibre .
Continuing collaboration with the staff at Farnborough proved helpful in the quest for higher quality, but, ironically, Courtaulds's big advantage as manufacturer of the "Courtelle" precursor now became a weakness. Low cost and ready availability were potential advantages, but the water-based inorganic process used to produce Courtelle made it susceptible to impurities that did not affect the organic process used by other carbon-fibre manufacturers.
Nevertheless, during the 1980s Courtaulds continued to be a major supplier of carbon fibre for the sports-goodsmarket, with Mitsubishi its main customer. But a move to expand, including building a production plant in California, turned out badly. The investment did not generate the anticipated returns, leading to a decision to pull out of the area. Courtaulds ceased carbon-fiber production in 1991, though ironically the one surviving UK carbon-fiber manufacturer continued to thrive making fibre based on Courtaulds's precursor. Inverness-based RK Carbon Fibres Ltd has concentrated on producing carbon fibre for industrial applications, and thus does not need to compete at the quality levels reached by overseas manufacturers.
During the 1970s, experimental work to find alternative raw materials led to the introduction of carbon fibers made from a petroleum pitch derived from oil processing. These fibers contained about 85% carbon and had excellent flexural strength.
Structure and properties
A 6 m diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) compared to a human hair.
Carbon fibers are the closest to asbestos in a number of properties. Each carbon filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. A single such filament is a thin tube with a diameter of 58 micrometers and consists almost exclusively of carbon. The earliest generation of carbon fibers (i.e., T300, and AS4) had diameters of 7-8 micrometers. Later fibers (i.e., IM6) have diameters that are approximately 5 micrometers.
The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of carbon atoms (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. The difference lies in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics. Depending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with both graphitic and turbostratic parts present. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived from Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic, whereas carbon fibers derived from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at temperatures exceeding 2200 C. Turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high tensile strength, whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers have high Young's modulus and high thermal conductivity.
Applications
Tail of an RC helicopter, made of Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
For common applications, see Carbon fiber reinforced polymer.
Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly the class of materials known as Carbon fiber or graphite reinforced polymers. Non-polymer materials can also be used as the matrix for carbon fibers. Due to the formation of metal carbides (i.e., water-soluble AlC) and corrosion considerations, carbon has seen limited success in metal matrix composite applications. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) consists of carbon fiber-reinforced graphite, and is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber also finds use in filtration of high-temperature gasses, as an electrode with high surface area and impeccable corrosion resistance, and as an anti-static component. Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites because dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat..
Synthesis
Each carbon filament is made out of long, thin filaments of carbon sometimes transformed to graphite. A common method of making carbon filaments is the oxidation and thermal pyrolysis of polyacrylonitrile (PAN), a polymer based on acrylonitrile used in the creation of synthetic materials. Like all polymers, polyacrylonitrile molecules are long chains, which are aligned in the process of drawing continuous filaments. A common method of manufacture involves heating the PAN to approximately 300 C in air, which breaks many of the hydrogen bonds and oxidizes the material. The oxidized PAN is then placed into a furnace having an inert atmosphere of a gas such as argon, and heated to approximately 2000 C, which induces graphitization of the material, changing the molecular bond structure. When heated in the correct conditions, these chains bond side-to-side (ladder polymers), forming narrow graphene sheets which eventually merge to form a single, jelly roll-shaped or round filament. The result is usually 9395% carbon. Lower-quality fiber can be manufactured using pitch or rayon as the precursor instead of PAN. The carbon can become further enhanced, as high modulus, or high strength carbon, by heat treatment processes. Carbon heated in the range of 1500-2000 C (carbonization) exhibits the highest tensile strength (820,000 psi or 5,650 MPa or 5,650 N/mm), while carbon fiber heated from 2500 to 3000 C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity (77,000,000 psi or 531 GPa or 531 kN/mm).
Textile
Precursors for carbon fibers are PAN, rayon and pitch. Carbon fiber filament yarns are used in several processing techniques: the direct uses are for prepregging, filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding etc. Carbon fiber yarn is rated by the linear density (weight per unit length, i.e. 1 g/1000 m = 1 tex) or by number of filaments per yarn count, in thousands. For example, 200 tex for 3,000 filaments of carbon fiber is three times as strong as 1,000 carbon fibers but is also three times as heavy. This thread can then be used to weave a carbon fiber filament fabric or cloth. The appearance of this fabric generally depends on the linear density of the yarn and the weave chosen. Some commonly used types of weave are twill, satin and plain.
Manufacturers
PAN aerospace/high end carbon fiber:
Toray Industries (largest worldwide manufacturer)
Toho Tenax
Mitsubishi Rayon
Hexcel
Cytec Industries
Schunk Gruppe
PAN commercial grade carbon fiber:
...
|
|
|
|
Diode Side-Pump Laser Marking Machine 
Fiber formation
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia; however, the use of these fibers for textile applications is more recent. Until this time all fiberglass had been manufactured as staple. When the two companies joined to produce and promote fiberglass, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers. The first commercial production of fiberglass was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. Owens-Corning is still the major fiberglass producer in the market today.
The types of fiberglass most commonly used are mainly E-glass (alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1 wt% alkali oxides, maily used for glass-reinforced plastics), but als A-glass (alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (alumino-lime silicate with less than 1 wt% alkali oxides, has high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used,e.g., for glass staple fibers), D-glass (borosilicate glass with high dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength).
Chemistry
The basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n. It has no true melting point but softens at 2,000 C (3,630 F), where it starts to degrade. At 1,713 C (3,115 F), most of the molecules can move about freely. If the glass is then cooled quickly, they will be unable to form an ordered structure. In the polymer, it forms SiO4 groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center and four oxygen atoms at the corners. These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms , black fiber .
The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization, it must be heated to temperatures above 1,200 C (2,190 F) for long periods of time , source of fiber .
Molecular Structure of Glas , acrylic fiber .
Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it must be worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature. These materials also impart various other properties to the glass which may be beneficial in different applications. The first type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A glass. It was not very resistant to alkali. A new type, E-glass was formed that is alkali free (< 2%) and is an alumino-borosilicate glass. This was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. E-glass still makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world. Its particular components may differ slightly in percentage, but must fall within a specific range. The letter E is used because it was originally for electrical applications. S-glass is a high-strength formulation for use when tensile strength is the most important property. C-glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals, mostly acids which destroy E-glass. T-glass is a North American variant of C-glass. A-glass is an industry term for cullet glass, often bottles, made into fiber. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass. Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH. Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces.
Since E-glass does not really melt, but soften, the softening point is defined as "the temperature at which a 0.550.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5C per minute". The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 1014.5 poise. The annealing point, which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a viscosity of 1013 poise.
Properties
Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/(mK).
The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine fibershose which have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks. There is a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter. The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference), the viscosity should be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber.
Glass-reinforced plastic
Main article: Glass-reinforced plastic
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like graphite-reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to by the name of its reinforcing fibers (fiberglass). Chemosetting plastics are normally used for GRP productionost often polyester (using butanone as a catalyst), but vinylester or epoxy are also used. The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) or a woven fabric.
As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete), the two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other. Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in tension but have no strength against compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads.
Uses
Uses for regular fiberglass include mats, thermal insulation, electrical insulation, reinforcement of various materials, tent poles, sound absorption, heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics, high-strength fabrics, pole vault poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing panels, automobile bodies and boat hulls. It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Fibreglass is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels.
See also
Look up fiberglass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Glass microsphere
Building insulation
Fiberglass molding
Composite materials
Physics of glass
Glass transition
Strength of glass
Filament tape
Optical fiber
Basalt fiber
Carbon fiber
Glass wool
Gelcoat
BS4994
Notes and references
^ a b Loewenstein, K.L. (1973). The Manufacturing Technology of Continuous Glass Fibers. New York: Elsevier Scientific. pp. 294. ISBN 0-444-41109-7.
^ "A Market Assessment and Impact Analysis of the Owens Corning Acquisition of Saint-Gobain's Reinforcement and Composites Business". August 2007. http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/592029. Retrieved on 2009-07-16.
^ a b c d E. Fitzer et al., "Fibers, 5. Synthetic Inorganic", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
^ a b c Gupta, V.B.; V.K. Kothari (1997). Manufactured Fibre Technology. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 544546. ISBN 0-412-54030-4.
^ a b c Volf, Milos B. (1990). Technical Approach to Glass. New York: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-98805-X.
^ a b Lubin, George (Ed.) (1975). Handbook of Fiberglass and Advanced Plastic Composites. Huntingdon NY: Robert E. Krieger.
^ Frank P. Incropera; David P. De Witt (1990). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. A11. ISBN 0-471-51729-1.
^ KH Hillermeier, Melliand Textilberichte 1/1969, Dortmund-Mengede, page 2628, "Glass fiberts properties related to the filament fiber diameter".
^ a b c B. Ilschner et al., "Composite Materials", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
^ Erhard, Gunter. Designing with Plastics. Trans. Martin Thompson. Munich: Hanser Publishers, 2006.
External links
Fiberglass wiki
Fibreglass Flat Roof
Fiberglass and health
Fiberglass Wall Reinforcement Mesh
International Geosynthetics Society, information on geotextiles and geosynthetics in general.
Glassfiber Mat for Roofing System
Categories: Composite materials | Glass types | Glass forming | Building...
|
|
|
|
Polyester Staple Fiber  astic optical fiber (POF) (or fibre) is an optical fiber which is made out of plastic. Traditionally PMMA (acrylic) is the core material, and fluorinated polymers are the cladding material. Since the late 1990s however, much higher-performance POF based on perfluorinated polymers (mainly polyperfluorobutenylvinylether) has begun to appear in the marketplace.
In large-diameter fibers, 96% of the cross section is the core that allows the transmission of light. Similar to traditional glass fiber, POF transmits light (or data) through the core of the fiber. The core size of POF is in some cases 100 times larger than glass fiber.
POF has been called the "consumer" optical fiber because the fiber and associated optical links, connectors, and installation are all inexpensive. The traditional PMMA fibers are commonly used for low-speed, short-distance (up to 100 meters) applications in digital home appliances, home networks, industrial networks (PROFIBUS, PROFINET), and car networks (MOST). The perfluorinated polymer fibers are commonly used for much higher-speed applications such as data center wiring and building LAN wiring.
In relation to the future request of high-speed home networking, there has been an increasing interest in POF as a possible option for next-generation Gigabit/s links inside the house. To this end, several European Research projects are active, such as POF-ALL and POF-PLUS .
For telecommunications, the more difficult-to-use glass optical fiber is more common. This fiber has a core made of germania-doped silica. Although the actual cost of glass fibers are lower than plastic fiber, their installed cost is much higher due to the special handling and installation techniques required.
One of the most exciting developments in polymer fibers has been the development of microstructured polymer optical fibers (mPOF), a type of photonic crystal fiber.
'MAIN POINTS IN POF' 1.PMMA & Polystyrene are used as fiber core, with refractive indices of 1.49 & 1.59 respectively. 2.Generally, fiber cladding is made of silicone resin (refractive index ~1.46). 3.High refractive index difference is maintained between core and cladding. 4.POF have high numerical aperture. 5.Have high mechanical flexibility and low cost , nylon fiber .
Literatur , fc fiber .
Ziemann, O., Krauser, J., Zamzow, P.E., Daum, W.: POF Handbook - Optical Short Range Transmission Systems. 2nd ed., 2008, Springer, 884 p. 491 illus. in color, ISBN: 978-3-540-76628- , optical cable fiber .
External links
Plastic Optical Fiber Applications: Video surveillance and Ethernet
Basics of Plastic Optical Fiber
Ethernet over Plastic Optical Fiber technology
Plastic Optical Fiber white papers
POFTO: Plastic Optical Fiber Trade Organization
Gigabit Transmission over Plastic Optical Fiber
SELECTION OF PLASTICS FOR OPTICAL APPLICATIONS
Categories: Optical fiber
|
|
|
|
Superione Jet For Gasoline Vehicle 
History of cultivation
Cultivation, cultural elaboration and use of cacao were extensive and early in Mesoamerica. Studies of the Theobroma cacao tree genetics suggests a domestication and spread from lowland Amazonia, contesting an earlier hypothesis that the tree was domesticated independently in both the Lacandon area of Mexico, and in Amazonia. The cacao tree belongs to the Theobroma genus, in the Sterculiaceae family, that contains 22 species. Today, the most common of the cultivated species is Theobroma cacao, with two subspecies and three forms. Wild cacaos falling into two groups. The South American subspecies spaerocarpum has a fairly smooth melon-like fruit. In contrast, the Mesoamerican cacao subspecies has ridged, elongated fruits. At some unknown early date, the subspecies T. cacao reached the southern lowlands of Mesoamerica and came into wide usage.
Aztec statuary of a male figure holding a cacao pod
The Maya believed that the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by the Maya. According to Maya mythology, the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane (Bogin 1997, Coe 1996, Montejo 1999, Tedlock 1985). The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah, an event that included the sacrifice of a dog with cacao colored markings; additional animal sacrifices; offerings of cacao, feathers and incense; and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica (Aztec) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao (cacahuatl: "'bitter water"'), in a mountain filled with other plant foods (Coe 1996, Townsend 1992). Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering the cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage as ritual were used only by men, as it was believed to be toxic for women and children.
There are several mixtures of cacao described in ancient texts, for ceremonial, medicinal uses as well as culinary purposes. Some mixtures included maize, chili, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), peanut butter and honey. Archaeological evidence for use of cacao, while relatively sparse, has come from the recovery of whole cacao beans at Uaxactun, Guatemala (Kidder 1947) and from the preservation of wood fragments of the cacao tree at Belize sites including Cuello and Pulltrouser Swamp (Hammond and Miksicek 1981; Turner and Miksicek 1984). In addition, analysis of residues from ceramic vessels has found traces of theobromine and caffeine in early formative vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1100 - 900 B.C.) and in middle formative vessels from Colha, Belize (600-400 B.C.) using similar techniques to those used to extract chocolate residues from four classic period (ca. 400 A.D.) vessels from a tomb at the archaeological site of Rio Azul. As cacao is the only known commodity from Mesoamerica containing both of these alkaloid compounds, it seems likely that these vessels were used as containers for cacao drinks. In addition, cacao is named in a hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao was also believed to be ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes , black soy beans .
The first Europeans to encounter cacao were Christopher Columbus and his crew in 1502, when they captured a canoe at Guanaja that contained a quantity of mysterious-looking lmonds. The first real European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with Moctezuma in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519. Cortez and others noted the vast quantities of this beverage that the Aztec emperor consumed, and how it was carefully whipped by his attendants beforehand. Examples of cacao beans along with other agricultural products were brought back to Spain at that time, but it seems that the beverage made from cacao was introduced to the Spanish court in 1544 by Kekchi Maya nobles brought from the New World to Spain by Dominican friars to meet Prince Philip (Coe and Coe 1996). Within a century, the culinary and medical uses of chocolate had spread to France, England and elsewhere in Western Europe. Demand for this beverage led the French to establish cacao plantations in the Caribbean, while Spain subsequently developed their cacao plantations in their Philippine colony (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). The Nahuatl-derived Spanish word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753 after the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus published his taxonomic binomial system and coined the genus and species Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao , kona coffee beans .
Traditional pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica. These include the Oaxacan beverage known as tejate , split red lentils .
Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads (xiquipil in nahuatl) of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80-100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire.
In some areas, such as Yucatn, cacao beans were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s[citation needed].
Cultivation
Cacao is cultivated on over 70,000 km (27,000 mi) worldwide. Statistics from FAO FAO.org for 2005 are as follows:
Rank, Country
Value
Production
(Int $1000*)
MT
1 Cte d'Ivoire
1,024,339
1,330,000
2 Ghana
566,852
736,000
3 Indonesia
469,810
610,000
4 Nigeria
281,886
366,000
5 Brazil
164,644
213,774
6 Cameroon
138,632
180,000
7 Ecuador
105,652
137,178
8 Colombia
42,589
55,298
9 Mexico
37,281
48,405
10 Papua New Guinea
32,733
42,500
11 Malaysia
25,742
33,423
12 Dominican Republic
24,646
32,000
13 Peru
21,950
28,500
14 Venezuela
13,093
17,000
15 Sierra Leone
8,472
11,000
16 Togo
6,547
8,500
17 India
6,161
8,000
18 Philippines
4,352
5,650
19 Congo, Rep.
4,336
5,630
20 Solomon Islands
3,851
5,000
Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices
v d e
Lists of countries by agricultural output rankings
Cereals
Barley Buckwheat Maize Millet Oats Rice Rye Sorghum Triticale Wheat
Fruit
Apples Bananas Citrus (Oranges) Tomatos
Other
Cacao Coffee Fish Milk Potato Soybean Sugar beet Sugar cane Sunflower Tea Tobacco Wine
Related
Irrigation Land use
Lists of countries Lists by country List of international rankings
Cacao seed in the fruit or Pocha
Young Cacao plantation
Cacao production has increased from 1.5 million tons in 1983-1984 to 3.5 million tons in 2003-2004, an increase that has almost entirely been due to the expansion of the production area rather than to yield increases. Some cacao is grown in large agro-industrial plantations. Some is grown by small producers using sustainable agricultural models.
A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste.
There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate.
For details of processing, see cocoa. Major cocoa bean processors include: Hershey's, Nestl and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources.
Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production; see: Illustrated guide to pests and their management.
Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids (Worldwide, but especially in West Africa)
Conopomorpha cramerella ("Cocoa pod borer" - in S.E. Asia)
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri ("Frosty Pod Rot")
Moniliophthora perniciosa ("Witches' Broom")
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta ("Mal de machete") or ("Ceratocystis wilt")
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae ("Vascular streak dieback")
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. ("Black Pod") especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
CSSV
See also: List of cacao diseases
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
Notes
^ Hernndez B, J. (1965). Insect pollination of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) in Costa...
|
|
|
|
Canadian Pulses 
Creation
Cocoa beans are ground into chocolate liquor and pressed to separate the cocoa butter from the cocoa solids . Cocoa butter can alternately be extracted from whole beans by the broma process. It is most often deodorized to remove its strong and undesirable taste.
Uses
Milk and sugar are added to make white chocolate, but most of it is used to produce milk chocolate, some of which contains more cocoa butter than cocoa liquor.
Because of the low melting point of cocoa butter, it is often used in pharmaceuticals as a base for suppositories. It is typically solid at room temperature, but readily melts at body temperature, releasing the medication.
Cocoa butter is one of the most stable fats known, containing natural antioxidants that prevent rancidity and give it a storage life of two to five years, making it a good choice for non-food products. The smooth texture, sweet fragrance and emollient property of cocoa butter make it a popular ingredient in cosmetics and skin care products, such as soaps and lotions.
The moisturizing abilities of cocoa butter are frequently recommended for prevention of stretch marks in pregnant women, treatment of chapped skin and lips, and as a daily moisturizer to prevent dry, itchy skin. The fact that it is a natural preservative and has a faintly pleasant aroma further lends benefits to its cosmetic uses.
Chemical propertie , small red beans .
The most common form of Cocoa butter has a melting point of around 34 to 38 degrees Celsius (93 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit), rendering chocolate a solid at room temperature that readily melts once inside the mouth. Cocoa butter displays polymorphism, having , , ', and crystals, with melting points of 17, 23, 26, and 3537 C respectively. The production of chocolate typically uses only the crystal for its high melting point. A uniform crystal structure will result in smooth texture, sheen, and snap. Overheating cocoa butter converts the structure to a less stable form that melts below room temperature. Given time, it will naturally return to the most stable crystal form , buy lentils .
v d , cacao bean .
Edible fats and oils
Fats
Bacon fat Butter Clarified butter Cocoa butter Dripping Duck fat Ghee Lard Margarine Niter kibbeh Oily fish Salo Schmaltz Shea butter Smen Suet Tallow Vegetable shortening
Oils
Almond oil Argan oil Avocado oil Canola oil Cashew oil Castor oil Coconut oil Colza oil Corn oil Cottonseed oil Fish oil (various kinds) Grape seed oil Hazelnut oil Hemp oil Linseed oil (flaxseed oil) Macadamia oil Marula oil Mongongo nut oil Mustard oil Olive oil Palm oil (palm kernel oil) Peanut oil Pecan oil Perilla oil Pine nut oil Pistachio oil Poppyseed oil Pumpkin seed oil Rapeseed oil Rice bran oil Safflower oil Sesame oil Soybean oil Sunflower oil Tea seed oil Walnut oil Watermelon seed oil
See also: List of vegetable oils Cooking oil
References
^ "Cocoa butter -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica Encyclopedia article. July 1998. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024603/cocoa-butter. Retrieved on 2007-09-10.
^ Cocoa butter pressing
^ The Nibble. "The World Best White Chocolate Page 3: Percent Cacao & Cocoa Butter". http://www.thenibble.com/zine/archives/best-white-chocolate3.asp#fillings. Retrieved on 2009-03-03.
^ http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cocoa-butter.htm
Categories: Vegetable fats | Foods featuring butterHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from May 2008
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
